Comparitive Analysis of Communications Systems

I wrote this last year for an online class I was taking while stationed in Iraq.  Probably boring to all but Coms Policy Wonks.  Of interest for perpetuity is that I pulled much of my information about Iraq from sources on the ground there.  I contacted and interviewed UN and USAID staff actually working on Iraqi communications infrastructure programs.  I was able to link these contacts up with our PRT & Embassy cohorts working on similar programs.  My little contribution to international cooperation and development.

Comparative Analysis of Communications Systems:
Iraq, Puerto Rico & Pakistan

by JBC

Introduction


In the early 1960s researchers began to notice a change in the economic climate in western society. The number of jobs related to agriculture and industry were decreasing while the number of jobs related to the technology of information storage, transport and retrieval was increasing. Researcher Daniel Bell theorized that western civilization had entered into a new age. Much like the agricultural age had enabled man to use farming techniques to transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle and the industrial age had facilitated a move from farms to factories he theorized that this new “post industrial” age would shepherd society from a goods production to a (knowledge based) service economy (Martin, 1995).

The term “information society” emerged in the 1970s as a way to describe this new postindustrial age where “quality of life as well as prospects for social change and economic development depend upon… information and its exploitation (Martin, 1995).”

Although the exact definition and criteria for an information society would continue to be debated, by the turn of the century it was clear that information and technology was a major player in global economics, politics and culture. It was also clear that wealthier nations had greater access to emerging information technologies and networks than those with more limited economic means. This disparity became known as the “digital divide” and the United Nations convened World Summits on the Information Society (WSIS), in 2003 and 2005, to discuss the issue, identify methods for measuring it and develop strategies for closing the gap (World Summit on Information Society Report, 2007).

The WSIS resulted in a set of standardized measures and indexes that could be used to compare nations equally. These measures were to be applied and reviewed in 2010 and 2015 to determine if progress was being made in closing the digital divide. Although these calculations are incomplete we can use the data currently available from WSIS and other sources to analyze groups of nations. This will give us an indication of the status of these countries on the spectrum of digital inclusion.

Purpose

The following paper presents a comparative analysis of the impact of the information society in three countries; Puerto Rico, Iraq and Pakistan. These nations represent a diverse spectrum of history, geography, culture, economy, infrastructure and access to technology. They were selected because they represent low, middle and high income nation states and will help illustrate the impact of the global information and knowledge society in differing political and cultural platforms.

The purpose of this report is to compare and contrast how each of these countries have received and responded to information and knowledge society concepts.

An analysis of activities and statistics related to these concepts is provided in an effort to highlight how these nations are similar and different. For background this paper includes a brief description of each country’s history, culture, political environment and economy. This paper also reviews social, technological, and infrastructural and policy issues that may contribute to promoting, stalling or reversing progress.

The structure of this report is broken into two parts. In the first section each country will be discussed individually to give the reader a sense of its national character. The second section will compare and contrast the countries using available statistics.

Iraq

It is impossible to discuss Iraq without understanding its long and ancient history. The modern Republic of Iraq occupies an area of the middle (or near) east that was once the Kingdom of Mesopotamia and known as the “cradle of civilization.” The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flow down its center creating a fertile agricultural region along which early man flourished. This climate and prosperity gave early leaders and thinkers time to issue the first written laws (the Code of Hammurabi) and develop intellectual complexities (such as algebra). The region was the center of Islamic Empire until the late middle ages when it was overrun by the Mongols. From the 15th Century until the early 20th Century the area was ruled by the Ottoman Empire (BBC History, 2010).

Great Britain briefly controlled Iraq after World War I and many of its military and government traditions are based on the systems established during that time. The British installed a Monarch who ruled from 1932 until he was overthrown in 1958. For a short time the region was governed by a Republic (albeit with strong central leadership). This essentially ended when the Arab Nationalist Ba’ath Party came to power in 1968. A little over a decade later, in 1979, Saddam Hussein became President (BBC History, 2010).

Saddam Hussein inherited a nation with a fairly modern infrastructure that was wealthy from oil profits. By the end of his reign, however, the country would be destroyed and its coffers emptied. The invasions of Iran in 1989 and of Kuwait in 1991 lead Iraq’s military into destructive conflicts that they could not win. In 2003 a coalition of forces lead by the United States enforcing United Nations sanctions invaded and overthrew Saddam’s Ba’athist government (CIA Fact Book, 2010).

The conflict and its aftermath has kept Iraq’s economy in limbo for nearly a decade. As insurgent activity subsides and the overall security climate improves the burden falls on the government to implement policy reforms to facilitate business development and develop oil reserves. Stabilization of the financial sector is needed to encourage and build confidence in the banking system. Working toward this goal Ministers have been meeting with the IMF and World Bank to design a system that would meet international requirements and encourage both investment and reliable business loans. Some progress has been made and inflation has decreased steadily since 2007 with the dinar to dollar exchange rate holding at 1170.

With little in the way of an enforceable internal tax structure, 90% of government revenue comes from oil exports. Ministers are working on legislation that would regulate the oil industry and distribute revenues evenly around the country. However, to fully realize benefits from these actions Iraq will need to update its oil processing and refining infrastructure.

Conventional operations in the 2003 war were short and effective, but with no strong government, police or military in place violent power struggles quickly began between various internal and external groups. In addition to the problems of rebuilding infrastructure the violence drove many entrepreneurs and the best educated from the country. This brain drain has reduced the pool of experts with the know-how and inclination to rebuild. Still, there are those who have re-emerged and not given up. And, in mid 2010 the violence has significantly decreased allowing local government, private business and international bodies to become more active (CIA Factbook).

This author is currently working with the Baghdad Chamber of Commerce to re-develop their web site in order to be more competitive internally and internationally. Use of the web for client communication and for teaching business skills to members is new to them but they are actively pursuing its implementation. Almost everyone has access to the internet and anyone doing business has an e-mail address. Most business leaders are very anxious to have a web presence that is interactive and allows them to present a modern professional image to the world.

Recognizing the need for regulation until a permanent government was in place, in 2003, the Iraq Coalition Provisional Authority established the Communications and Media Commission. The Commission is lead by a Chief Operating Officer and 9 Board Members. New Board Members are nominated by the Prime Minister and approved by the Parliament. The Commission is self funded by licensing fees paid by telecommunications and broadcasting companies (Stanhope Centre for Communications Policy Research).

The freedom following Saddam’s demise enabled the media market to go from a few state controlled outlets to one where there are hundreds of independent newspapers and dozens of radio and TV stations from which to choose. In addition to internal broadcasts Iraqis now have easy access to news and programming from abroad. British, French and US services broadcast directly to the Iraqi market through local relays. 70% of Iraqi viewers watch satellite TV and pan Arab stations such as Al Arabiya and Al Jazeera and Al Alam are popular (BBC History 2010).

The Iraqi government has begun laying fiber optic lines in an effort to improve domestic and international communications. Private cell companies are providing services and subscribers are steadily increasing as upgraded towers, switches and lines are installed. Nation-wide connections are now available via 3GSM networks (BBC History 2010).

In the west it is common for libraries to act as a hub for internet and communications activity but in Iraq they are just beginning to address the structural issues of where to store materials. The Iraqi National Library and Archives was built in the 1920s and stored documents dating back to the era of Ottoman rule. Unfortunately, Saddam loyalists burned much of the archives at the National Library and its affiliates during the 2003 war. Most of the buildings suffered major damage as well. The new National Library has a web site (www.iraqnla.org/wpeng/) but, at the moment, is more focused on accounting for lost documents and rebuilding facilities than becoming an internet hub (Wikipedia – Iraq, 2010).

Iraq is clearly only beginning its efforts to rebuild in all areas including that of communications. Despite its most recent troubles and a history of tyrannical rule Iraq has the resources necessary to quickly re- join the digital age and begin to bridge the divide. With a population of nearly 30 million, a GDP of $112 billion and literacy rate of 74% there is already a market that can take advantage of information technology. The question is whether Iraq can continue on its current course of growth when the final coalition forces depart in mid 2011.

Pakistan

Human civilization has existed in Pakistan for at least 5,000 years. The modern nation sits east of Iran and surrounds the Indus Valley where one of the world’s earliest civilizations arose. Since the second millennium BC the region has been invaded and influenced by many others including the Persians, Greeks, Arabs, Afghans and Turks. In the 18th century the British controlled the area which was all known as India.

Conflicts between Pakistani Moslems and Indian Hindus lead to the succession of Pakistan from British India in 1947. It was, however, a messy divorce and conflict on the borders of the two nations continued. Wars were fought over the northern territory of Kashmir in 1948, 1965 and 1971. Pakistan was further divided after the 1971 war when its eastern province succeeded to become the independent nation of Bangladesh (CIA Factbook).

Government institutions and leadership in Pakistan have a reputation for corruption, inefficiency and in fighting. The country has been ruled off and on by civilian and military authorities with little improvement to its bureaucracy. A military coup in 1999 installed General Pervez Musharraf as President. Musharraf straddled a political fence as he tried to maintain peace between internal Islamic factions and powerful western interests following 2001 terrorist attacks in the US. This and the continued troubles with government services lead to his resignation in 2008 when a civilian coalition government was installed (BBC History).

Islamic militants linked to the terrorist group known as the Taliban have continued to fight with the Pakistani military over territories along its border with Afghanistan. Skirmishes with India over the Kashmir region have regularly threatened the fragile peace between these two nations. Both India and Pakistan have nuclear weapons and given the depth of ongoing institutional disagreements have seemed at times likely to use them.

Economically the CIA Factbook refers to Pakistan as “an impoverished and underdeveloped country.”

Political strife and corruption has kept foreign investors away and stunted internal business development. After a brief period of growth from 2001 – 2007, due to government development spending, the economy slumped again in 2007 – 2008. Inflation continues to plague the nation with rates this decade between 7.7% and 20.3%. Textiles make up the majority of exports but a lack of diversity has made it difficult for Pakistan to respond quickly to changes in world demand.

Although Musharraf was a military ruler for much of his term he relaxed restrictions on broadcast and print media. In contrast, the current civilian coalition government has pledged to undo many of his reforms. All news broadcasts are from the official government channel as all private news outlets were forced to close in 2007. The government can restrict reception of foreign television channels and web sites. This happens most often with Indian and Afghani programs when tensions are raised (BBC History).

The Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA) was created in 1996 and oversees most industry licensing and regulation. The PTA is lead by a Chairman and 3 Board Members who serve 4 year terms. The body reports to the legislature and Cabinet and is funded by proceeds from licensing fees, penalties and fines. The PTA regulates licensing, radio frequencies, connection rates, technical standards, and internet content. Broadcasting content is overseen and regulated by the Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA).

There are laws that limit the freedom of the press and journalists have been prosecuted under the “blasphemy” legislation. Despite these laws the printed press in Pakistan is known for being highly critical on many issues. Also, with approximately 18.5 million internet subscribers the number of political blogs is growing. Unfortunately, much of this is lost on the greater population which has a literacy rate of just under 50%,

News programs come from the government but other broadcasts are from the free market. Cable television has the largest media audience with approximately 50 private channels to choose from. Radio too is popular with over 100 FM radio stations licensed to operate. There are no private local television stations but the tribal area in the north-western frontier region is host to many unlicensed pirate radio stations. These stations mostly broadcast religious programs and have been blamed for stirring up militant Islamists in the area (BBC History).

Domestic and international spending on telecommunications infrastructure (installation of microwave radio relay, coaxial & fiber optic cable, and satellite networks) has greatly improved availability of both fixed and mobile systems. Almost 90% of Pakistanis now reside within a mobile network. The number of cell subscribers has increased from around 300,000 in 2000 to over 91.4 million in 2010 (CIA Factbook). Despite its many challenges it appears that the communications market in Pakistan will continue to grow into the foreseeable future.

Pakistan’s National Library was chartered in 1993 and sees its mission as being a place for the storage and research of national documents. Its main facility houses over 130,000 volumes in its 169,000 SF building. It has a web site (http://www.nlp.gov.pk/Index.htm) which primarily serves as an informational portal on the web. In its current state the Pakistani library system does not seem inclined to become a hub for citizens seeking access to an electronic based information society linked by the internet.

Puerto Rico

The island of Puerto Rico stretches along the eastern shelf of the Caribbean Sea between north and south America. Prior to the arrival of Europeans in 1493 the island was populated by the aboriginal, Taino, people of the region. Christopher Columbus declared Puerto Rico as a Spanish colony on his second voyage to the Americas. Over the next 400 years European migration increased, unfortunately, bringing with it many diseases previously unknown in the hemisphere. The diseases nearly wiped out the indigenous population who had no natural immunities. The lack of local workers resulted in African slaves being brought in to work in the sugar plantations (CIA Factbook).

In 1898 the islanded was transferred to the United States as part of the resolution of the Spanish American war. In 1917 Puerto Ricans were given US citizenship but it wasn’t until 1948 that they were given a choice of who would serve as their Governor. Four years later a constitution was enacted giving the island its own government similar to a US State. Over the years there has been much debate about whether the protectorate should indeed be the 51st State but this idea has historically been rejected by voters. However, the most recently elected Governor, Luis Fortuno and his New Progressive Party support this notion (BBC History).

The United States is not only a protector of the island but a major source of revenue. Puerto Ricans pay no US taxes but their government benefits from its federal funds. US military presence on the island has historically bolstered the economy with jobs created on and off base for civilians. In recent years this military presence has shrunk with the closure of bases and a general realignment of US strategic needs (BBC History).

According to the CIA Fact Book the island’s economy is one of the most vibrant in the Caribbean. Starting in the 1950s private companies began investing heavily there in order to take advantage of tax incentives and duty free access to the US market. Because of this the historical dominance of its agricultural sector has been outpaced by industry in recent years. Pharmaceutical production has been a particularly successful element of this investment. Sugar production has given way to dairy and livestock in the agricultural sector. Tourism remains a key element of Puerto Rico’s economic sector with more than 3.6 million people visiting the island in 2008.

Broadcasting in Puerto Rico is regulated by the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in a broad national sense. As part of reform laws passed in 1996 the island created a Telecommunications Regulatory Board (TRB) to act as a pseudo judicial body charged with regulating telecommunications and cable television service, consumer protection and ensuring compliance with applicable laws. The TRB also establishes construction standards for new telecommunication and cable infrastructure.

Multiple television and radio channels are available in English and Spanish. News is provided by private sector journalists and the press has the same freedoms as in the United States. Popular broadcasts include locally produced comedies, talk shows, soaps (tele-novellas), and music. With a population of nearly 4 million and a GDP of over $68 billion Puerto Rico has the market and financial power to keep pace with communications infrastructure innovations.

Similar to the United States there are many libraries in Puerto Rico. These are connected to government entities, schools, universities and private collections. The public libraries offer internet services and access to such modern mediums as e-books. Some, like at the University of Puerto Rico, are even open 24 hours. Libraries on the island connect people to the world via internet and provide all the tools needed for citizens to participate in the online knowledge and information society (http://wwwbib.upr.edu/).



TABLE 1 Compiled from the CIA Fact Book 2010

PUERTO RICO IRAQ PAKISTAN

POPULATION 3,977,663 29,671,605 177,276,594

GDP $68,140,000,000 $112,000,000,000 $449,300,000,000

GDP RANK 82 64 28

GDP PER PERSON $17,131 $3,775 $2,534

TELE LINES 1,038,000 1,082,000 4,546,000

TELE USER % 26% 4% 3%

TELE RANK 78 76 33

CELL LINES 3,354,000 20,000,000 91,440,000

CELL USER % 84% 67% 52%

CELL RANK 104 39 9

AM RADIO STNS 74 0 31

FM RADIO STNS 53 55 68

TV STATIONS 34 28 20

WEB CODE .pr .iq .pk

WEB HOSTS 700 11 236

WEB RANK 167 219 61

WEB USERS 1,000,000 300,000 18,500,000

WEB USER RANK 88 126 20

WEB USER % 25% 1% 10%

MED AGE 36.7 20.6 21.2

URBAN POP 98% 67% 36%

LITERACY 94.1% 74.1% 49.9%

LITERACY M 93.9% 84.1% 63%

LITERACY F 94.4% 64.2% 36%

ELEC PROD (B KW) 23,720,000,000 46,390,000,000 90,800,000,000

ELEC USE (B KW) 22,060,000,000 52,000,000,000 72,200,000,000

ELEC USE PER PERSON 5,546 1,753 407

Comparisons

Table 1 (pg 11) is compiled from the CIA Factbook. It provides a wide range of information on information and knowledge society infrastructure status in the studied countries. These figures allow us to study the countries side by side so that we may get a better understanding of their differences and similarities.

When comparing Iraq, Pakistan and Puerto Rico in this way it is important to note that some of the data, when viewed independently, may paint a rosier picture than when seen in a global context. For example Pakistan ranks 20th in the world in web users. This seems impressive when compared to a first world country like Puerto Rico, which is only ranked at 88, and the war ravaged Iraq, ranked at 126. Similarly, Pakistan is ranked 61st in the number of internet hosts while Puerto Rico falls in at 167 and Iraq at 219.

When the numbers above are viewed in the context of the populations of these countries we see that Pakistan may not have a great lead over Puerto Rico and Iraq after all. The most recent measure of the population of Pakistan places it around 177 million. Only 10% of its population are web users. By volume this amounts to 18.5 million users but reveals that only a small portion of the population has access, or use, the internet. Pakistan is further limited in that its literacy rate is less than 50% so of those who can access the web less than half are able to navigate due to language barriers. Perhaps there is good news in the sheer number of people who use the internet in a country where the average citizen’s annual contribution to the GDP is just $2,534.

In contrast, Puerto Rico ranks sixty points below Pakistan and has only 1 million web users but 25% of its (3.9 million) population has direct access to the internet. With a literacy rate around 94% (for both men and women) islanders have a much greater chance of being able to navigate and take advantage of the web once they are connected. Despite its smaller population, each citizen of the Caribbean country contributes about $17,131 per year toward the GDP. This contributes to the presence of 700 web hosting services while Pakistan has only 236.

Bringing up the rear just 1% of Iraq’s 29.7 million population are recorded as having a regular online connection provided by 11 web hosts. Anecdotally, Iraq’s connectivity may currently be low in comparison to the others but internet café’s are booming businesses in Baghdad and everyone seems to have a “yahoo” e-mail address. Despite its other ills the Saddam government promoted education which has lead to a 74% literacy rate (84% among men and 64% among women) among the people. There is also a strong desire to learn English. These basics would seem to provide a solid foundation for Iraqis to take full advantage and promote the expansion of internet infrastructure.

TABLE 2 PUERTO RICO IRAQ PAKISTAN

2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010

NETWORK READY 39 42 45 89 98 87



Table 2 (pg 13) is compiled from information found in the 2010 Global Information Technology Report published by the World Economic Forum and INSEAD. This tracks data related to the information and communications technology (ICT) readiness of Puerto Rico and Pakistan over the last three years. Unfortunately, the information isn’t available for Iraq, probably due to the unstable security environment, during this time.

In the report “Readiness” is defined as “economic preparedness to leverage ICT advances for increased competitiveness and development.”

Readiness is a summary of data that tracks overall business environment, government regulation and infrastructure. It also looks at key societal players (business, government and individuals) inclination and actual use of ICT.

According to this report Pakistan dropped from 89th in 2008 to 98th the following year and rebounded to 87th in 2010 in world readiness rankings. No specific reason is highlighted in the report to explain Pakistan’s rise but a period of increased government spending on infrastructure between 2001 and 2007 may be paying off through improved readiness in the following years. During the same time Puerto Rico fell from 39th to 45th. While its business sector seems to be advancing in its use of ICT Puerto Rico’s overall decline is attributed to a reduced focus by government on ICT issues.

Referring back to Table 1 (pg 11) some similarities emerge in the use of mobile and cell phone technology. In regard to cell phone usage; 84% of the people in Puerto Rico, 67% in Iraq and 52% in Pakistan take advantage of this communications tool. This most likely speaks to the widespread availability, ease of use and low cost of this technology. Also, for basic usage, literacy is not a barrier. For emerging nations such as Iraq and Pakistan the infrastructure for cell phones is much easier to apply.

Although not as secure for communications purposes and more vulnerable to weather conditions cell towers and satellite links are much easier for building networks than running hard land lines. Planning and permits are required for mobile infrastructure but without the extensive property and right of way issues associated with land lines. In addition, in areas where there is political unrest hard cased items such as telephone lines and switch stations may be easily targeted and interrupted by insurgents (or the government). The diversity of companies, locations and networks makes this difficult with cell lines.

In Puerto Rico 26% of the population use phones connected to traditional (cable & pole) telephone lines. In contrast these are used by just 4% in Iraq and 3% in Pakistan. This disparity may be linked to the broader reach of Puerto Rico’s existing infrastructure built along with that of the United States. Iraq and Pakistan do not have similar networks. As traditional telephone usage drops globally this may turn out to be an advantage for such emerging economies whose people will have no nostalgic affinity for hard lines.

For Iraq and Pakistan, whose median age is 21, the largest part of the population is young. This may mean a quicker adoption of new technologies, again, because there is no nostalgia for, or time invested learning, older methods of communication. However, this may be balanced by the percentage of people residing in areas who may not be exposed to things like mobile technology at all. In Pakistan 64% of the population live in rural areas. In Iraq the figure is 33%.

In Puerto Rico the median age is 37 and 98% live in urban areas. Given that 84% are already cell users it seems that there is little impediment to adapting to new technology.

Another similarity, numerically, are the number of traditional broadcast outlets. Pakistan leads with 68 FM stations, followed by 55 in Iraq and 53 in Puerto Rico. If divided evenly by the population each Pakistani station would serve 2.6 million listeners. Each Iraqi station would serve a little over 539,484 and each Puerto Rican station 75,050 listeners.

The numbers are similar with Television outlets however in this case with Puerto Rico in the lead. The island boasts 34 TV stations which, if potential viewers were equally divided, would have an audience of 116,990. Iraq comes in second with 28 TV stations which if the audience were divided by the population represents a little over 1 million viewers. Pakistan only has 20 stations but if the population were divided equally would result in over 8.8 million viewers each.

CONCLUSION

In the three countries studied; Puerto Rico, Iraq and Pakistan the information and knowledge society has begun to make an impact but in different ways and at different levels. The geography and history of each nation effects the availability, format and sharing of information. Politics, proximity and war have shaped how communications systems are implemented. Economics have dictated what technology is available and how its networks are constructed. Each nation has situational resources that if exploited could benefit their status on the knowledge and information society ladder.

Puerto Rico, with its proximity and link to the United States benefits the most from geography and history in the march toward an information society. These ties have enabled a relatively small Caribbean protectorate to expand its infrastructure along with the advances of its North American benefactor. Despite some rocky times, the population, its politicians and policies have, in general, facilitated the growth and construction of infrastructure to improve communications systems. Mid century policies in the United States created incentives for doing business in Puerto Rico and thus created an economic environment that would allow wealth to be diverted toward these projects. If Puerto Rico’s government takes the hint of the 2010 WSIS report and focuses more resources on this sector they should continue to rise in the rankings of nations that are most connected.

Pakistan’s geography and history seems to be something of a hindrance to its progress in bridging the digital divide. Conflicts with its neighbors and internal struggles with a population of diverse and intolerant religions combined with a multitude of languages and dialects make Pakistan a hard place to standardize anything. But, cell towers and satellite dishes have made it easier to increase the communications footprint. Those who find the technology useful are already learning its standards and taking advantage of the benefits of doing so.

Iraq’s oil and other natural resources are able to provide enough income for building civil society as well as technological infrastructure. Its citizenry too are ready to rejoin the civilized world after more than 10 years of war. However, it sits on a political divide that will determine if it has the motivation to pursue knowledge society goals. If it is able to continue with the democratic reforms of the post Saddam era it may not be long before technology becomes not just a communications method but also a means to increase jobs and businesses related to it. If Iraq succumbs the chaotic desires of its neighbors, and internal foes, this will most likely delay any such progress.

All three countries go forward at the mercy of the international economy and political will of the nations they are allied with. All three, to some extent, depend on the generosity of the United States in order to sustain and grow their fortunes. But, internal fortitude will also be important. Their leaders and citizens alike must have the vision and will to do what is necessary to close the digital divide.



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References

BBC History. (2010). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/791014.stm

Iraq - http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/791014.stm

Puerto Rico – http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/3593469.stm

Pakistan - http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/country_profiles/1157960.stm

CIA Fact Book. (2010). www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html

Iraq - https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html

Puerto Rico – https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rq.html

Pakistan - https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html

Global Information Technology Report. (2010). Publication of the World Economic Forum and INSEAD. Geneva, Switzerland. www.itu.int/wsis/implementation/2010/forum/geneva/docs/publications/GITR%202009-2010_Full_Report_final.pdf

Martin, W. (1995). The Global Information Society. London, UK. AslibGower.

Wikipedia (2010).

Iraq - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_National_Library

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2010). http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=1657&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

http://www.unesco-ci.org/cgi-bin/portals/information-society/page.cgi?=1

Stanhope Centre for Communications Policy Research. (January 2007). Republic of Iraq Communications and Media Commission Policy Recommendations Concerning Broadcasting in Iraq